IPCS INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY
Health and Safety Guide No. 21
ALDRIN AND DIELDRIN
HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDE
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, GENEVA
This is a companion volume to Environmental Health Criteria 91: Aldrin
and Dieldrin
Published by the World Health Organization for the International
Programme on Chemical Safety (a collaborative programme of the United
Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation,
and the World Health Organization)
This report contains the collective views of an international group of
experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated
policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International
Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization.
ISBN 92 4 154343 4
ISSN 0259 - 7268
(c) World Health Organization 1989
Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright
protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the
Universal Copyright Convention. For rights of reproduction or
translation of WHO publications, in part or in toto, application
should be made to the Office of Publications, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The World Health Organization
welcomes such applications.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers'
products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the
World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature
that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of
proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. PRODUCT IDENTITY AND USES
1.1. Identity
1.1.1. Primary constituent: aldrin
1.1.2. Primary constituent: dieldrin
1.2. Physical and chemical properties
1.3. Analytical methods
1.4. Uses
2. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
2.1. Summary
2.2. Evaluation of human health risks
2.3. Evaluation of effects on the environment
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1. Conclusions
3.2. Recommendations
4. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS, PREVENTION AND PROTECTION, EMERGENCY ACTION
4.1. Main human health hazards, prevention and protection,
first aid
4.1.1. Advice to physicians
4.1.1.1 Symptoms of poisoning
4.1.1.2 Medical advice
4.1.2. Health surveillance advice
4.2. Safety in use
4.3. Explosion and fire hazards
4.3.1. Explosion hazards
4.3.2. Fire hazards
4.4. Storage
4.4.1. Leaking containers in store
4.5. Transport
4.6. Spillage and disposal
4.6.1. Spillage
4.6.2. Disposal
5. HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR PREVENTION
6. INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL SAFETY CARD
7. CURRENT REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES, AND STANDARDS
7.1. Previous evaluations by international bodies
7.2. Exposure limit values
7.3. Specific restrictions
7.3.1. Aldrin
7.3.2. Dieldrin
7.4. Labelling, packaging, and transport
7.5. Waste disposal
7.6. Other measures
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) documents produced by the
International Programme on Chemical Safety include an assessment of
the effects on the environment and on human health of exposure to a
chemical or combination of chemicals, or physical or biological
agents. They also provide guidelines for setting exposure limits.
The purpose of a Health and Safety Guide is to facilitate the
application of these guidelines in national chemical safety
programmes. The first three sections of a Health and Safety Guide
highlight the relevant technical information in the corresponding EHC.
Section 4 includes advice on preventive and protective measures and
emergency action; health workers should be thoroughly familiar with
the medical information to ensure that they can act efficiently in an
emergency. Within the Guide is an International Chemical Safety Card
which should be readily available, and should be clearly explained, to
all who could come into contact with the chemical. The section on
regulatory information has been extracted from the legal file of the
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) and from
other United Nations sources.
The target readership includes occupational health services, those in
ministries, governmental agencies, industry, and trade unions who are
involved in the safe use of chemicals and the avoidance of
environmental health hazards, and those wanting more information on
this topic. An attempt has been made to use only terms that will be
familiar to the intended user. However, sections 1 and 2 inevitably
contain some technical terms. A bibliography has been included for
readers who require further background information.
Revision of the information in this Guide will take place in due
course, and the eventual aim is to use standardized terminology.
Comments on any difficulties encountered in using the Guide would be
very helpful and should be addressed to:
The Manager
International Programme on Chemical Safety
Division of Environmental Health
World Health Organization
1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
THE INFORMATION IN THIS GUIDE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AS A STARTING POINT
TO A COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAMME
1. PRODUCT IDENTITY AND USES
1.1 Identity
1.1.1 Primary constituent: aldrin
Chemical formula: C12H8Cl6
Chemical structure:
or
Common synonyms and trade names: ENT 15949 (compound 118); HHDN,
Octalene, OMS 194
IUPAC chemical name: (IR,4S,5S,8R)-1,2,3,4,10,10-
hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,8,8a-
hexahydro-1,4:5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene; or
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,
8,8a-hexahydro- exo-1,4- endo-5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene
CAS registry number: 309-00-2
RTECS registry number: I02100000
Relative molecular mass: 364.9
Technical product
Common trade name: Aldrin (this is the common name of
an insecticide containing 95% (w/w)
of HHDN)
Purity: Technical aldrin contains a minimum
of 90% (w/w) of aldrin, as defined
above
Impurities: octachlorocyclopentene (0.4%),
hexachlorobutadiene (0.5%), toluene
(0.6%), and a complex mixture of
compounds formed by polymerization
of HCCPD and BCH during the aldrin
reaction (3.7%) and carbonyl
compounds (2%).
1.1.2 Primary constituent: dieldrin
Chemical formula: C12H8OCl6
Chemical structure:
or
Common synonyms and trade names: ENT 16225 (compound 497); HEOD,
Alvit, Octalox, OMS 18, Quintox
IUPAC chemical name: (IR,4S,5S,8R)-1,2,3,4,10,10-
hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-
octahydro-6,7-epoxy-1,4:5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene; or
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7,-
epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-
endo-1,4- exo-5,8,-
dimethanonaphthalene
CAS registry number: 60-57-1
RTECS registry number: I01750000
Relative molecular mass: 380.9
Technical product
Common trade name: Dieldrin (this is the common name
of an insecticide containing 85%
(w/w) of HEOD)
Purity: Technical dieldrin contains not
less than 95% (w/w) of dieldrin,
as defined above
Impurities: Other polychloroepoxyoctahydro-
dimethanonaphthalenes (endrin) 3.5%
1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
Both technical products are light tan solids with a mild chemical
odour. Some physical and chemical properties are given on the
International Chemical Safety Card on pages 24-27.
1.3 Analytical Methods
Analytical methods for the determination of aldrin and dieldrin are
mainly based on gas-liquid chromatography with electron-capture
detection.
1.4 Uses
Aldrin and dieldrin, both organochlorine pesticides commercially
manufactured since 1950, were used throughout the world up to the
early 1970s. Both compounds act as a contact and stomach poison for
insects and have been used as insecticides in agriculture for the
control of many soil pests and in the treatment of seed. Insects
controlled by these compounds include termites, grasshoppers, wood
borers, beetles, and textile pests. Dieldrin is also used in public
health for the control of the tse-tse fly and other vectors of
debilitating tropical diseases.
Since the early 1970s, use of the two compounds has been severely
restricted or banned in several countries, especially in agriculture.
Nevertheless, they are still used in some other countries for
termite control. Global production, which was estimated to be
13000 tonnes/year in 1972, had decreased to less than 2500 tonnes/year
in 1984.
2. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
2.1 Summary
Dairy products, meat products, fish, oils and fats, and certain
vegetables, such as root vegetables, often contain dieldrin. The
maximum residue limits recommended by the FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on
Pesticide Residues range from 0.02 to 0.2 mg/kg product. Recent
measurements have shown that actual levels are lower, and this has
been confirmed by total-diet studies. Since the use of these two
compounds has been restricted, there has been a steady, but slow,
decrease in residue levels in the different food commodities.
Human intake of low concentrations with the daily diet has resulted in
low levels of dieldrin in adipose tissue and in a few other tissues
and organs. Global surveys have shown that mean values in man range
from 0.1 to 0.4 mg/kg in adipose tissue. Since the early 1970s, this
concentration has also gradually decreased.
Transplacental exposure of the fetus occurs so that the fatty tissues
of the fetus also contain dieldrin, but in concentrations that are
only 1/2-1/10 of those in the mother. An equilibrium seems to exist
between levels in the fetus and those in the mother. Dieldrin is also
excreted with the milk.
Inhabitants of houses that have been treated for termite control, or
in which wood has been treated against insects, may be exposed through
inhalation. Levels in the air after indoor treatment may range from
0.01 to 7 µg/m3, depending on the type of application, the
concentration used, the type of ventilation, and the time of sampling.
Under these conditions, food may also be contaminated by direct
contact or by sorption from the atmosphere.
Metabolism takes place mainly in the liver where aldrin is readily
transformed to dieldrin. Dieldrin is degraded at a slower rate to
hydrophilic metabolites, which are then excreted via the bile and
urine. The structures of these metabolites have been established. In
all species examined, including man, the existence of a steady state
of storage at a certain level of intake for aldrin and dieldrin has
been shown, and a linear relationship between log-intake and
log-storage has been demonstrated. The concentration of dieldrin in
the body tissues decreases exponentially on termination of exposure to
the compounds.
The acute oral toxicity of both aldrin and dieldrin for mammals is
high, while the dermal toxicity is moderate. Dermal sensitization has
not been found. Effects observed in acute, short-, and long-term
studies involved the central nervous system. The liver is also a
target organ. In the liver of mice and rats, changes known as
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide rodent liver were found.
Aldrin and dieldrin do not appear to cause teratogenic effects at
doses below those causing maternal toxicity and fetotoxicity.
Reproductive toxicity has not been reported.
The results of numerous in vitro and in vivo mutagenicity studies have
shown that neither aldrin nor dieldrin has mutagenic potential.
In long-term studies, aldrin and dieldrin induced benign and malignant
liver tumours in the mouse. No increased incidence of liver tumours
or other tumours were found in rats and hamsters.
2.2 Evaluation of Human Health Risks
The International Agency for Research on Cancer has stated that there
is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in human beings and limited
evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Both aldrin and
dieldrin have been classified in Group 3; however, the chemicals
cannot be classified as to their carcinogenicity in human beings.
On the basis of available short- and long-term toxicity data, the
overall no-observed-adverse-effect level in the rat is 0.5 mg
dieldrin/kg diet, equivalent to 0.025 mg/kg body weight. In the dog,
the lowest no-observed-adverse-effect level found was 0.04 mg/kg body
weight. The JMPR established an ADI of 0.0001 mg/kg body weight in
1966 and 1977, on the basis that aldrin and dieldrin were not human
carcinogens.
Aldrin and dieldrin are highly toxic for man. Severe cases of both
accidental and occupational poisoning have occurred, but reported
fatalities have been rare. Survivors of acute or subacute
intoxications recovered completely.
Adverse effects are related to the concentration of dieldrin in the
blood. Determination of the dieldrin level in blood provides a
specific diagnostic test for aldrin/dieldrin exposure. At a
concentration of dieldrin in the blood below 105 µg/litre, no adverse
effects can be expected. This level is considered to be a
no-observed-adverse-effect level in blood, corresponding to a daily
intake of 0.02 mg dieldrin/kg body weight per day.
Environmental, mainly dietary, exposures lead to the presence of
dieldrin in low concentrations in the human body. However, the
results of extensive clinical and epidemiological studies have
indicated that these body burdens do not present a health hazard.
No signs of any changes in liver function were found in a study that
continued over 20 years, and involved more than 1000 industrial
workers exposed to aldrin and dieldrin. In this study and another
study in the USA, no specific cancer risk could be identified
associated with occupational exposure to (sometimes high levels of)
aldrin and dieldrin.
All the available information on aldrin and dieldrin, including the
studies on human beings, supports the view that, for practical
purposes, these chemicals make very little contribution, if any, to
the incidence of cancer in man.
The short-term toxicity of photodieldrin, the photodecomposition
product of dieldrin, is similar to that of dieldrin. However, the
accumulation of photodieldrin in the adipose tissue of experimental
animals was less than that of dieldrin. Photodieldrin is not
teratogenic or carcinogenic in mice and rats.
2.3 Evaluation of Effects on the Environment
Aldrin, used as soil insecticide, is the major source of dieldrin (up
to 97%) in the environment. Aldrin and the reaction product dieldrin
are rapidly adsorbed on soils, especially soils containing a high
level of organic matter. Consequently, there is little penetration
into the soil, and contamination of ground water does not generally
occur. Transport of both compounds takes place mainly through soil
erosion (as wind drift) and sediment transport (surface run-off), but
not through leaching.
The use of aldrin and dieldrin in agriculture leads to residues
(mainly of dieldrin) in the soil that can persist for years, the
estimated half-life being between 4 and 7 years. The compounds are
less persistent under tropical conditions than under temperate
conditions.
Aldrin and dieldrin enter the atmosphere through volatilization from
treated crops and soil or directly during the application of the
pesticide. Dieldrin returns to soil and water surfaces hrough washout
and dry deposition. Thus, the compounds are found in the vapour phase
(very low levels, in general 1-2 ng/m3), adsorbed on dust particles,
or in rainwater (of the order of 10-20 ng/litre).
The occurrence of dieldrin in the aquatic environment has been
reported by several authors. The concentrations in surface water are
mainly very low, less than 5 ng/litre. However, concentrations in
water may be higher, especially in areas of soil erosion or
agricultural use. Sediment in rivers in these areas may contain up to
1 mg dieldrin/kg. The high capacity for aquatic organisms to
concentrate dieldrin from very low levels in water could lead to toxic
levels in the organisms. Concentration through aquatic foodchains is
of less importance than direct uptake from water.
Because of the widespread occurrence of dieldrin in the environment
and its persistence, a wide range of concentrations of dieldrin are
found in non-target organisms. While earlier concentrations ranged
from 0.001 mg to 100 mg/kg tissue, they are now mostly below 1 mg/kg
tissue.
In terrestrial ecosystems, aldrin and dieldrin are accumulated by a
wide variety of organisms, principally as dieldrin. Dieldrin is
probably responsible for the deaths of mammals in the field and for
the decline in population of some species, such as the otter. Small
mammals would be killed by eating dieldrin-dressed grain, but
populations of these animals are likely to be replenished by
immigration from surrounding areas. Birds of prey that eat small
mammals, and small birds contaminated by dieldrin, take up and
accumulate dieldrin in their own tissues and eggs. Granivorous birds
are killed by eating dressed grain. It is probable that the
population decline in birds of prey has been caused by dieldrin
residues in their tissues. The effects of dieldrin are seen much
later than the time of contamination, because residues are stored in
fat over winter, to be released in the spring. Control of the use of
dieldrin at certain times of the year did not prevent bird
mortalities.
The widespread use of aldrin and dieldrin, in conjunction with other
organochlorine pesticides, has led to severe detrimental effects on
the environment, though with drastic curtailment of use, particularly
in seed dressings, there has been some recovery in bird populations.
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Conclusions
(a) Both aldrin and dieldrin have been subjected to intensive and
wide-ranging study, toxicologically, clinically, and
epidemiologically. Residues in the diet generally seem to fall
within promulgated ADIs. Evaluation of the overall data strongly
supports the view that the body burden resulting from the present
levels of exposure, mainly oral and to a lesser extent through
inhalation, do not constitute a health risk for the general
population.
(b) Analyses have shown that dieldrin occurs almost ubiquitously in
human breast milk. Nevertheless, the concentration of this
chemical in the blood and adipose tissue of suckling infants does
not increase with age during the first six months, nor is the
dieldrin level in their blood higher than that in the blood of
bottle-fed babies. Under these circumstances, the benefits of
natural breast feeding may still be regarded as outweighing the
alternative methods of infant feeding.
(c) In the treatment of premises, notably for termite control, the
exposure of occupants does not appear to be significantly
increased to a level that would endanger their health, as long as
the directions for safe practice are conscientiously respected.
(d) Despite the highly toxic nature of aldrin and dieldrin, both of
these chemicals can be handled safely provided that the
recommended precautions to minimize worker exposure are always
observed. Neglect of these rules may lead to poisoning of
operators.
(e) During the period of high usage of aldrin and dieldrin, between
1950 and 1970, detrimental effects were undoubtedly inflicted on
species in the environment. These effects were due partly to
dieldrin and partly to other organochlorine compounds also
present in the species. Since the drastic curtailment of the use
of these materials, there has been a recovery in numbers among
these species.
3.2 Recommendations
(a) To protect the environment, the resumption of the large-scale use
of aldrin and dieldrin must be avoided and applications should be
confined to situations in which no safer and equally effective
alternatives can be recommended.
(b) For the health and welfare of workers and the general population,
it is desirable to entrust the handling and application of aldrin
and dieldrin only to well trained competent operators, who will
follow adequate safety measures.
(c) To avoid accidental poisoning from aldrin, especially in
children, the use of granules of this chemical as an ant bait
should be forbidden.
From: Environmental Health Criteria 91: Aldrin and Dieldrin
4. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS, PREVENTION AND PROTECTION, EMERGENCY ACTION
4.1 Main Human Health Hazards, Prevention and Protection, First Aid
Aldrin and dieldrin are organochlorine insecticides. They are highly
toxic and can be hazardous for human beings if incorrectly or
carelessly handled. It is therefore essential that the correct
precautions are observed during handling and use.
For details see the International Chemical Safety Card on pages 24-27.
4.1.1 Advice to physicians
4.1.1.1 Symptoms of poisoning
Aldrin and dieldrin are toxic by mouth, by skin contact (especially
liquid formulations), and by inhalation of dust from powder
concentrates. They act as stimulants of the central nervous system.
Following accidental ingestion or over-exposure, symptoms may include
headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, weakness in the legs, and
stimulation of the central nervous system with clonic jerks and
convulsions, sometimes leading to death.
4.1.1.2 Medical advice
Medical treatment is largely symptomatic and supportive and directed
against convulsions and anoxia. If swallowed, vomiting should not be
induced and emetics are contraindicated, because many liquid
formulations contain hydrocarbon solvents and there is risk of
aspiration pneumonia. Instead, the stomach should be emptied as soon
as possible by careful gastric lavage (with a cuffed endotracheal tube
in place), avoiding aspiration into the lungs. This should be
followed by intragastric administration of 3-4 tablespoons of
activated charcoal and 30 g of magnesium or sodium sulfate in a 30%
aqueous solution. Oily purgatives are contraindicated. No fats,
oils, or milk should be given.
If convulsions occur, anticonvulsants should be given, e.g., diazepam
10 mg slowly intravenously (children 1-5 mg), repeated as necessary;
or thiopental sodium, or hexobarbital sodium slowly, intravenously in
a dose of 10 mg/kg, with a maximum total dose of up to 750 mg for an
adult, or paraldehyde at 5 ml by intramuscular injection. The
short-acting anti-convulsants should always be followed by
phenobarbital given orally at 3 mg/kg (up to 200 mg for an adult), or
phenobarbital sodium given intramuscularly at 3 mg/kg (also up to
200 mg for an adult).
Morphine and its derivatives, atropine, epinephrine, and noradrenaline
should never be given.
An unobstructed airway must be maintained. Respiratory inadequacy,
which may be accentuated by barbiturate anticonvulsants, should be
corrected, and oxygen and/or artificial ventilation may be needed.
4.1.2 Health surveillance advice
A complete medical history and physical examination of regularly
exposed workers should be made, on an annual basis. The dieldrin
level in blood is a measure of exposure to both aldrin and dieldrin
(see also Plestina, 1984).
4.2 Safety in Use
Manufacturing and formulation:
All efforts should be made to control exposure through enclosure of
dusty operations, exhaust ventilation, and good housekeeping. Use full
protective clothing (see also GIFAP, 1982, 1983).
Handling liquid formulations:
Wear protective neoprene or PVC gloves, cotton overalls, rubber boots,
and face shield.
Handling powder formulations:
Avoid raising a dust cloud. Wear protective gloves and dust mask.
Follow the advice relating to personal hygiene.
Ground spray application:
Wear hat or cap, cotton overalls or long-sleeved cotton shirt, long
trousers, and boots or shoes. When there is a risk of accidental
contamination by the spray, also wear an impermeable hood and jacket.
At all times avoid exposure to the spray mist. Do not spray into the
wind.
Read and observe the instructions applying to the equipment being
used. Pay proper regard to wind speed and direction. Always spray
downwind. Do not spray if there are other people immediately
downwind.
Applications for termite control in buildings:
Reduce applicator exposure by keeping windows open and by use of
portable exhausts in basements. Wear full protective clothing. Never
handle concentrate material in any part of a house or building. Store
food and feed away before application. Observe re-entry period where
applicable.
After application:
Ensure that equipment is thoroughly cleaned and stored away ready for
use next time. Carry out any essential maintenance.
Partly used containers must be reclosed and returned to store. Empty
containers should be disposed of as advised in section 4.6.2. Change
out of working clothes and take a bath or shower. Launder clothing
before re-use.
4.3 Explosion and Fire Hazards
4.3.1 Explosion hazards
The explosion hazard will depend on the solvent used in the
formulation or on the characteristics of the dust.
4.3.2 Fire hazards
Liquid products containing organic solvents may be flammable.
Extinguish fires with alcohol-resistant foam, carbon dioxide, or
powder. With sufficient burning or external heat, aldrin and dieldrin
will decompose emitting toxic fumes. Fire-fighters should be equipped
with self-contained breathing apparatus, eye protection, and full
protective clothing.
The use of water spray should be confined to the cooling of unaffected
stock, thus avoiding the accumulation of polluted run-off from the
site.
4.4 Storage
Products should be stored in locked buildings, preferably dedicated to
insecticides, out of reach of children and unauthorized personnel. Do
not store near foodstuffs or animal feed.
4.4.1 Leaking containers in store
Take precautions and use appropriate personal protection (section
4.2). Any product remaining in damaged or leaking containers should
be emptied into a clean empty drum, which should then be tightly
closed and suitably labelled.
Spillage should be swept up with sawdust, sand, or earth (moisten for
powders), and disposed of safely (section 4.6.2).
After emptying, leaking containers should be rinsed with at least
1 litre of water per 20-litre drum. Swirl round to rinse the walls,
empty, and add the rinsings to the sawdust or earth. Damaged
containers should be punctured to prevent re-use.
4.5 Transport
Local requirements regarding movements of hazardous goods must be
complied with. Products should not be transported in the same
compartment as feed or foodstuffs. Containers should be checked
before dispatch to make sure that they are in good condition and that
the labels are undamaged.
4.6 Spillage and Disposal
4.6.1 Spillage
Before dealing with any spillage, precautions should be taken as
required and appropriate personal protection should be used (section
4.2).
Solid products should be swept up and the remaining spilled product
absorbed with moist sawdust, sand, or earth and transferred in
suitable container to a safe place for disposal (section 4.6.2).
Liquid can be prevented from spreading or contaminating other cargo,
vegetation, or waterways by making a barrier of the most suitable
available material, e.g., earth or sand.
Spilled liquid should be absorbed on sawdust, sand, or earth, swept
up, and placed in a closeable container for later transfer to a safe
place for disposal.
Since aldrin and dieldrin are toxic for fish, care should be taken to
avoid run-off into water courses.
4.6.2 Disposal
Surplus product, contaminated absorbents, and containers should be
disposed of in an appropriate way. Aldrin and dieldrin are not
readily decomposed chemically or biologically and are relatively
persistent. Waste material should be burned only in a proper
incinerator designed for organochlorine waste disposal (1000°C and
30-min residence time with effluent gas scrubbing). If this is not
possible, it should be buried in an approved dump or landfill where
there is no risk of contamination of surface or ground water, as long
as local legislation is not contravened. Containers must be punctured
to prevent re-use.
5. HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR PREVENTION
Aldrin and dieldrin may pose a toxic hazard to many aquatic and
terrestrial species. Industrial discharges and indiscriminate waste
disposal have caused the death of both fish and birds. The compounds
may give rise to bioaccumulation and biomagnification and are rather
persistent in the environment. Their use as seed dressing agents has
caused the death of large numbers of wood pigeons and other birds, and
indirectly of birds of prey.
Industrial discharges occurring during manufacture, formulation,
mothproofing, or other technical applications should not be allowed to
pollute the environment and should be treated properly.
Any spillage or unused product should be prevented from spreading to
vegetation or waterways and should be treated and disposed of
properly.
Aldrin and dieldrin should only be used in situations in which no
safer and equally effective alternatives can be recommended.
6. INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL SAFETY CARD
This card should be easily available to all health workers concerned
with, and users of, aldrin and dieldrin. It should be displayed at,
or near, entrances to areas where there is potential exposure to
aldrin and dieldrin, and on processing equipment and containers. The
card should be translated into the appropriate language(s). All
persons potentially exposed to the chemical should also have the
instructions on the chemical safety card clearly explained.
Space is available on the card for insertion of the National
Occupational Exposure Limit, the address and telephone number of the
National Poison Control Centre, and for local trade names.
ALDRIN DIELDRIN
C12H8Cl6 C12H8OCl6
CAS registry number: 309-00-2 CAS registry number: 60-57-1
RTECS registry number: I02100000 RTECS registry number: I01750000
CAS chemical name: endo,exo-1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro- CAS chemical name: endo,exo-1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-
1,4,4a,5,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene (8CI) 6,7-epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-
1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene (8CI)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ALDRIN DIELDRIN OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
(technical) (technical)
Setting point (range) (°C) 49- 60 95 Light tan solid or flakes with mild chemical odour;
Density (20°C) (g/ml) 1.54 1.62 both technical materials are stable in storage at
Vapour pressure (mmHg) ambient temperatures; they are also stable in
(20°C) 6.5 x 10-5 3.1 x 10-6 formulation in the presence of basic reagents,
Relative molecular mass 364.9 380.9 alkaline oxidizing agents, emulsifiers, wetting
n-Octanol/water partition agents, and solvents; they may decompose when mixed
coefficient 7.4 6.2 with catalytically active carriers; both substances
Solubility in water can be absorbed into the body by inhalation or
(mg/litre) (25°C) 0.027 0.186 ingestion, or through the skin; they act as stimulants
(practically insoluble) to the central nervous system and may cause convulsions
Solubility in: on overexposure
- paraffinic and aromatic
hydrocarbons moderate sparing
- esters and ketones moderate moderate
- alcohols sparing pract. insol.
HAZARDS/SYMPTOMS PREVENTION AND PROTECTION FIRST AID
SKIN: Overexposure may cause Avoid skin contact; wash contaminated Remove contaminated clothing
poisoning clothing before re-use; wear protective immediately; wash skin with water
clothing, PVC or neoprene gloves, and soap
rubber boots
EYES: Irritation, redness Wear faceshield or goggles Flush with clean water for 15 minutes; if
irritation persists, seek medical attention
INHALATION: Dust may irritate Wear dust mask; use appropriate
ventilation in buildings
INGESTION: Unlikely occupational Do not eat, drink, or smoke during
hazard work; wash hands before eating,
drinking, or smoking
Accidental or intentional ingestion Obtain medical attention immediately;
may cause lethal poisoning do not induce vomiting; keep at rest,
lying face downwards
REPEATED EXPOSURE: SKIN, As above; shower and put on clean In case of poisoning, as above
INHALATION, INGESTION: clothing after work
Poisoning may occur after a
considerable time, owing to the
slow build up of toxicants in the
body
ENVIRONMENT: Toxic for aquatic Do not spill on animal feed
and terrestrial life; bioaccumulates or in waterways; do not use as
a seed-dressing
SPILLAGE STORAGE FIRE AND EXPLOSION
Take appropriate personal Products should be stored in Liquid products burn; emulsifiable concentrates
precautions; prevent liquid locked buildings preferably are miscible with water; extiguish fires with
from spreading or contaminating dedicated to insecticides; alcohol-resistant foam, CO2, or powder; with
other cargo, vegetation, or keep products out of reach of sufficient burning or external heat, any of these
waterways, with a barrier of the children and unauthorized products will decompose, emitting toxic fumes;
most suitable available material, personnel; do not store near the smoke and fumes could be injurious through
e.g., earth or sand; absorb spilled foodstuffs or animal feed inhalation, or absorption through the skin;
liquid with sawdust, sand, or therefore, protective clothing and self-contained
earth; sweep up and place it in breathing apparatus should be worn;
a closeable container for later confine the use of water spray to the cooling
safe disposal of unaffected stock, thus avoiding the
accumulation of polluted run-off from the site
WASTE DISPOSAL NATIONAL INFORMATION
Aldrin and dieldrin are not National Occupational Exposure UN No. 2761, 2762, 2995, 2996
readily decomposed chemically Limit:
or biologically and are rather
persistent; waste material should
be burned in a proper incinerator
designed for organochlorine waste National Poison Control Centre:
disposal; if this is not possible,
bury in an approved dump or landfill
where there is no risk of
contamination of surface or ground Local Trade Names:
water; comply with any local
legislation regarding disposal of
toxic wastes
7. CURRENT REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES, AND STANDARDS
The information given in this section has been extracted from the
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) legal
file and other UN sources. The intention is to give the reader a
representative but not exhaustive overview of current regulations,
guidelines, and standards.
The reader should be aware that regulatory decisions about chemicals
taken in a certain country can only be fully understood in the
framework of the legislation of that country.a
7.1 Previous Evaluations by International Bodies
Aldrin and dieldrin were evaluated by the FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on
Pesticide Residues (JMPR) in 1963, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970,
1974, 1975, and 1977. From 1966 onwards, the JMPR established an
acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0-0.0001 mg/kg body weight (combined
total for aldrin + dieldrin). This was based on
no-observed-adverse-effect levels of:
- 0.5 mg/kg diet, equivalent to 0.025 mg/kg body weight in the
rat; and
- 1 mg/kg diet, equivalent to 0.025 mg/kg body weight in the
dog.
The maximum residue limits (MRLs) listed in the table on page 29 were
recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1986 and are
quoted as the sum of aldrin + dieldrin.
A guideline value of 0.03 µg/litre for aldrin and dieldrin in
drinking-water has been recommended by WHO.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer has evaluated aldrin
and dieldrin on several occasions. Aldrin and dieldrin were found to
be carcinogenic for the liver of mice, but there was no evidence for
carcinogenicity in other organs. The data available did not provide
evidence of carcinogenicity in rats. Data on dogs, monkeys, and man
were too limited for any conclusions to be drawn (IARC, 1974). IARC
a The regulations and guidelines of all countries are subject
to change and should always be verified with the appropriat
regulatory authorities before application.
Maximum Residue Limits
Commodity MRL
(mg/kg)
Fat of meata 0.2
Asparagus, aubergines, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, cabbage,
carrotsa cauliflower, cucumbers,
horseradish, lettucea,onions,
parsnips, peppers, pimentos,
potatoes, radishes, radish tops 0.1
Eggs (shell-free) 0.1
Fruit 0.05
Rice (in husks) 0.02
Raw cereals (other than rice) 0.02a
Milk 0.006a
a Extraneous residue limit derived from crops grown on
previously treated soils.
regarded each compound as a chemical that could not be classified as
to its carcinogenicity for human beings (IARC, 1982). At a meeting on
aldrin and dieldrin in 1987, it was considered that there was
inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in human beings and limited
evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Accordingly,
both chemicals were classified in Group 3: the agent cannot be
classified as to its carcinogenicity for humans (IARC, in press).
WHO classified the acute hazard to health for technical aldrin and
dieldrin as highly hazardous (WHO, 1988). WHO/FAO has also issued
data sheets on aldrin (79.41) and dieldrin (75.17).
7.2 Exposure Limit Values
Some exposure limit values for aldrin are given in the table on pages
30-34 and for dieldrin on pages 35-40.
ALDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
AIR Work-place Argentina Maximum permissible concentration
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
- Short-term exposure limit (STEL) 0.75 mg/m3
Australia Threshold limit value (TLV)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Belgium Threshold limit value (TLV)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Finland Maximum permissible concentration
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
- Short-term exposure limit (STEL) 0.75 mg/m3
Germany, Maximum work-site concentration (MAK)
Federal - Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Republic of - Short-term exposure level (STEL) 2.5 mg/m3
(30-min) (1 x per shift)
AIR Work-place Netherlands Maximum limit 0.25 mg/m3
- Time-weighted average (TWA)
Poland Maximum permissible concentration
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.01 mg/m3
Romania Maximum permissible concentration
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.20 mg/m3
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.25 mg/m3
ALDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
Switzerland Maximum work-site concentration (MAK)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Thailand Maximum permissible concentration (MAC) 1977
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
United Kingdom Recommended limit
- 8-h Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
- Short-term exposure level (STEL) 0.75 mg/m3
(10-min time-weighted average)
USA Permissible exposure limit (PEL)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
AIR Work-place USSR Maximum allowable concentration (MAC)
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.01 mg/m3
Yugoslavia Maximum allowable concentration (MAC)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
FOOD Intake from USSR Acceptable daily intake (ADI) 0-0001 mg/kg
FOOD General Argentina Maximum limit 0-0.1 mg/kg
USA Acceptable residue limit (ARL)
- Raw agricultural products 0-0.1 mg/kgb
FOOD Plant Brazil Acceptable limit (AL) 0.01-0.2 mg/kg
Czechoslovakia Maximum residue limit (MRL)
- For imported food only 0.02-0.2
ALDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
FAO/WHO Extraneous residue limit (ERL) 0.02-0.2 mg/kgb
FAO/WHO Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.02-0.2 mgb
FOOD Plant Germany, Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.01-0.1 mg/kgb
Federal
Republic of
India Maximum tolerable concentration 0.01 - 0.2 mg/kgb
Japan Acceptable residue limit 0-0.02 mg/kgb
Kenya Maximum limit 0.1-0.2 mg/kgb
USSR Prohibited in food
Sweden Maximum tolerable concentration 0.05 mg/kg
Thailand Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.01-0.15 mg/kg 1982
FOOD Animal Sweden Maximum tolerable concentration 0.005-0.1 mg/kg
Thailand Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.1-0.3 mg/kg 1982
FEED Argentina Maximum limit 0 mg/kg
USA Acceptable residue limit (ARL) 0-0.1 mg/kgb
- Raw agricultural products
FEED USSR Maximum residue limit (MRL)
- Prohibited in animal feed 0 mg/kg
ALDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
WHO Guideline level 0.03 µg/litre 1984
WATER Ambient USSR Maximum allowable concentration 0.002 mg/litre
WATER Fishing USSR 0 mg/litre
a TWA = time-weighted average over one working day (usually 8 h).
b Total of aldrin and dieldrin.
DIELDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
AIR Work-place Australia Threshold limit value (TLV)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Belgium Threshold limit value (TLV)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Bulgaria Maximum permissible concentration 0.01 mg/m3
Finland Maximum permissible concentration
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Germany, Maximum work-site concentration (MAK)
Federal - 8-h time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Republic of - Short-term exposure level (STEL) 2.5 mg/m3
(30-min) (1 x per shift)
AIR Work-place Netherlands Maximum limit
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Poland Maximum permissible concentration
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.01 mg/m3
Romania Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.20 mg/m3
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.25 mg/m3
Switzerland Maximum work-site concentration (MAK)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
Thailand Maximum permissible concentration 1977
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
DIELDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
United Kingdom Recommended limit (RECL)
- 8-h time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
- Short-term exposure level (STEL) 0.75 mg/m3
(10-min time-weighted average)
AIR Work-place USA Permissible exposure limit (PEL)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
USSR Maximum allowable concentration (MAC)
- Ceiling value (CLV) 0.01 mg/m3
Yugoslavia Maximum allowable concentration (MAC)
- Time-weighted average (TWA) 0.25 mg/m3
FOOD Intake from FAO/WHO Acceptable daily intake (ADI) 1977
- Total of aldrin and dieldrin 0.0001 mg/kg
body weight
FOOD General Argentina Maximum limits 0-0.25 mg/kg 1969
USA Acceptable residue limit 0-0.1 mg/kgb
- Raw agricultural products
FOOD Plant Brazil Acceptable limit 0.01-0.2 mg/kg
Czechoslovakia Maximum residue limit (MRL) 1978
- For imported food only 0.02-0.2 mg/kg
FOOD Plant FAO/WHO Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.02-0.2 mg/kgb
DIELDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
Germany, Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.01-0.1 mg/kgb 1984
Federal
Republic of
India Maximum tolerable concentration 0.01-0.2 mg/kgb 1976
Japan Acceptable residue limit (ARL) 0-0.02 mg/kgb
Kenya Maximum limit 0.02-0.2 mg/kg
Sweden Maximum tolerable concentration 0.05 mg/kgb 1985
Thailand Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.02-0.1 mg/kg 1982
FOOD Animal FAO/WHO Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.1-0.2 mg/kgb
FOOD Animal Germany, Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.1-1 mg/kg
Federal
Republic of
FOOD Sweden Maximum tolerable concentration 0.005-0.1 mg/kgb 1983
Thailand Maximum residue limit (MRL) 0.1-0.3 mg/kg 1982
FEED Argentina Maximum limits 0 mg/kg
USA Acceptable residue limit (ARL)
- Raw agricultural products 0-0.1 mg/kgb
DIELDRIN - EXPOSURE LIMIT VALUES (continued)
Medium Specification Country/ Exposure limit descriptiona Value Effective
organization date
USSR Maximum residue limit (MRL)
- Prohibited in animal feed 0 mg/kg
WATER Drinking- EEC Requirement (RQR) 1977
- Surface water to be treated for 0.001-0.005
drinking (all methods) mg/litre
WHO Guideline value 0.03 µg/litre 1984
GOODS Germany, Maximum recommended limit (MRL) 1984
Federal - Tobacco 0.3 mg/kg
Republic of
Japan Maximum permissible concentration (MPC) 1978
- Textile products <30 µg/kg
a TWA = time-weighted average over one working day (usually 8 h).
b Total of aldrin and dieldrin.
7.3 Specific Restrictions
7.3.1 Aldrin
Aldrin is prohibited for use in, among others, Argentina, Brazil,
Canada, Chile, Ecuador, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary,
Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, the USA, and the USSR. The European
Community legislation prohibits the marketing of phytopharmaceutical
products containing aldrin. In India, Mauritius, the United Kingdom,
Venezuela, and Yugoslavia it is restricted to specific uses. In
Finland, it is prohibited for use in agriculture, but accepted as a
termiticide in a glue mixture for export plywood.
7.3.2 Dieldrin
Dieldrin is prohibited for use in agriculture in, among others,
Brazil, Ecuador, Finland, the German Democratic Republic, Singapore,
Sweden, Yugoslavia, and the USSR. The European Community legislation
prohibits the marketing of phytopharmaceutical products containing
dieldrin. In Argentina, Canada, Chile, the Federal Republic of
Germany, Hungary, and the USA its use is prohibited, with some
exceptions. The use of dieldrin is restricted in India, Mauritius,
Togo, and the United Kingdom. Its use in industry is prohibited in
Switzerland and its manufacture and use in Japan is under government
control. In Finland, the only accepted use for dieldrin is as a
termiticide in one glue mixture for exported plywood. India requires
registration and licences for all importation, manufacture, sale, or
storage.
7.4 Labelling, Packaging, and Transport
The United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transportation of
Dangerous Goods classifies aldrin and dieldrin in:
- Hazard Class 6.1: poisonous substances;
- Packing Group II: substances and preparations presenting a
serious risk of poisoning, when the active ingredient is
75-100%;
- Packing Group III: substance presenting a relatively low
risk of poisoning in transport, when the active ingredient
ranges from 19 to 75% (solid) or 7-75% (liquid).
The label should be as follows:
The FAO specifications for plant protection products containing aldrin
or dieldrin specify the composition and purity of the technical
product and its formulation. They also advise on methods for checking
this.
The material shall consist, essentially, of HHDN (minimum 85.5% w/w)
in the case of aldrin or HEOD (minimum 80%) in the case of dieldrin,
together with its related manufacturing impurities. It shall be white
to tan granules, flakes, or powder, free from extraneous impurities or
added modifying agents. Its content of active ingredient shall be
declared and, when determined, the percentage may not differ from that
declared by more than ±4 percentage units for the technical product
and 4-10% for the formulations.
The European Community legislation requires the labelling of aldrin as
a dangerous substance using the symbol:
The label must read:
Toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed; possible risks of
irreversible effects; danger of serious damage to health by
prolonged exposure; do not breathe dust; wear suitable
protective clothing and gloves; if you feel unwell, seek medical
advice (show the label where possible).
The European Community legislation on the labelling of pesticide
preparations classifies aldrin in Class 1/b for the purpose of
determining the label for preparations containing aldrin and other
active ingredients.
The European Community legislation requires the labelling of dieldrin
as a dangerous substance using the symbol:
The label must read:
Toxic if swallowed, very toxic in contact with skin; possible
risks of irreversible effects; danger of serious damage to
health by prolonged exposure; do not breathe dust; wear suitable
protective clothing and gloves; in case of accident or if you
feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately (show the label
where possible).
The European Community legislation on the labelling of pesticide
preparations classifies dieldrin in Class 1/a for the purpose of
determining the label for preparations containing dieldrin and other
active ingredients.
7.5 Waste Disposal
In the USA, aldrin and dieldrin are classified as toxic pollutants and
acute hazardous wastes, subject to handling, transport, treatment,
storage, and disposal regulations and permit and notification
requirements. An owner or operator of a hazardous waste incinerator
must achieve 99.99% destruction and removal efficiency for these
substances.
7.6 Other Measures
The European Community legislation requires that Member States shall
prescribe that, from the time they are put into circulation, cereals
(wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, paddy rice, buckwheat, millet, grain
sorghum, triticale) may not contain levels of residues (in and on
cereals) of aldrin, dieldrin (HEOD), singly or combined, expressed as
dieldrin (HEOD), greater than a maximum of 0.01 mg/kg (applicable
latest by June 1988).
The European Community legislation further requires that Member States
shall prescribe that, from the time they are put into circulation,
foodstuffs of animal origin (meat, poultry, milk, butter, cheese,
etc.) may not contain residue levels of aldrin, dieldrin (HEOD),
singly or combined, expressed as dieldrin (HEOD), greater than a
maximum of 0.2 mg/kg in the fat of meat and poultry, and greater than
a maximum of 0.006 mg/kg in raw cow's milk, whole cream cow's milk,
butter, or cheese (applicable latest by 30 June 1988).
Aquatic environment
The European Community legislation has established limit values for
the discharge of, and quality objectives for, aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin, and isodrin in the aquatic environment.
The limit values for emission standards are:
(a) Plants producing aldrin and/or dieldrin and/or endrin, including
formulation of these substances on the same site, must:
- on a monthly average value, not exceed 3 g in effluent per tonne
of production capacity (g/tonne) or a concentration in effluent
of 2 µg/litre of water discharged (to be complied with as from 1
January 1989).
- on a daily average value, not exceed 15g in effluent per tonne of
production capacity (g/tonne) or a concentration in effluent of
10µg/litre of water discharged (to be complied with as from 1
January 1989).
(b) For inland surface waters, estuary waters, internal coastal waters
other than estuary waters, territorial waters, for the compounds
aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and isodrin together:
- 30 ng/litre (to be complied with as from 1 January 1989); and
10 ng/litre for aldrin, 10 ng/litre for dieldrin, 5 ng/litre for
endrin, and 5 ng/litre for isodrin (to be complied with as from 1
January 1994).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO (1985a) Guidelines for the packaging and storage of pesticides.
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (1985b) Guidelines for the disposal of waste pesticides and
pesticide containers on the farm. Rome, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
FAO (1985c) Guidelines on good labelling practice for pesticides.
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
GIFAP (1982) Guidelines for the safe handling of pesticides during
their formulation, packing, storage and transport. Brussels,
Groupement International des Associations Nationales des Fabricants de
Produits Agrochimiques.
GIFAP (1983) Guidelines for the safe and effective use of
pesticides. Brussels, Groupement International des Associations
Nationales des Fabricants de Produits Agrochimiques.
GIFAP (1984) Guidelines for emergency measures in cases of pesticide
poisoning. Brussels, Groupement International des Associations
Nationales des Fabricants de Produits Agrochimiques.
IARC (1972-present) IARC monographs on the evaluation of
carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man. Lyons, International Agency
for Research on Cancer.
IRPTC (1983) IRPTC legal file 1983. Geneva, International Register
of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, United Nations Environment Programme.
IRPTC (1985) IRPTC file on treatment and disposal methods for waste
chemicals. Geneva, International Register of Potentially Toxic
Chemicals, United Nations Environment Programme.
PLESTINA, R. (1984) Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
insecticide poisoning. Geneva, World Health Organization
(unpublished WHO document No. VBC/84.889).
SAX, N.I. (1984) Dangerous properties of industrial materials. New
York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc.
UNITED NATIONS (1986) Recommendations on the transport of dangerous
goods. 4th ed. New York, United Nations.
US NIOSH/OSHA (1981) Occupational health guidelines for chemical
hazards. 3 Vol., Washington DC, US Department of Health and Human
Services, US Department of Labor (Publication No. DHHS(NIOSH) 01-123).
WHO (1988) The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by
hazard and guidelines to classification 1988/89. Geneva, World
Health Organization (unpublished report VBC/88.953).
WHO (In press) Environmental Health Criteria No. 91: Aldrin and
dieldrin. Geneva, World Health Organization.
WHO/FAO (1975-87) Data sheets on pesticides. Geneva, World Health
Organization (unpublished documents).
WORTHING, C.R. & WALKER, S.B. (1983) The pesticide manual. 7th ed.
Lavenham, Lavenham Press Limited, British Crop Protection Council.